Western Civilization Lesson 125 Essay – Week 25 Review

Writing assignment: Answer three of the following questions:

(1) What kinds of developments occurred during the renaissance of the twelfth century?

The twelfth-century renaissance started with a revival of interest in classical literature. There were large amounts of Latin works written early on in the renaissance, especially poetry. Soon the interest in literature died out, so most of the renaissance was dedicated to the study of science, philosophy, and law. Throughout the whole renaissance, there was also a revival of documenting history. A Roman-inspired, more systematic form of law was gradually replacing the muddled barbarian customs, but this came with a downside. As with Roman law, there was an emphasis on the monarchs at the expense of the people’s liberty.

The twelfth-century renaissance was characterized by a rebirth of interest in philosophy and the sciences. It also helped bring about the establishment of European universities and structured state law.

(2) Discuss the origins and features of the university system in the High Middle Ages.

Historians are not completely certain how Middle Age universities came to be, but we do know that they developed out of cathedral schools run by monks. The university system established many of the things used in a modern university: fixed programs, debates, and a separation of undergraduate degrees and master’s degrees. A masters degree would allow someone to teach anywhere. To get a degree, the student would first have to pass a final exam (which universities do today) and even debate both sides of a question.

The first available program was Liberal Arts, which consisted of 7 topics grouped into two categories. One category is the trivium, which consists of grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and the other is the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. The reasoning for the trivium is simple, all three topics focus on great writing and speaking. The quadrivium’s subjects also have something in common: patterns. The topics were believed to be the four ways that God ordered creation. University cities (the people) loved the money the students brought, but often disliked the students. The church, and sometimes even the pope, protected the universities from prejudice. The new university system also had specialized colleges. For example, Paris was known for theology and Bologna for law. Each college also had a different set of rules. In Bologna, the students were completely in charge of the college and could even punish the professor for skipping an important section of law. Though the universities of the Middle Ages are often stereotyped as ignorant, they were surprisingly dedicated to logic.

(4) Write a brief overview of the life and work of Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas, born in 1225, is considered the greatest theologian of the Catholic Church and has written numerous works, combined being over 8 million words. His most well-known books include the Summa Theologica and Summa Contra.

From the age of 14, Aquinas began studying at the University of Naples. At 19, he decided to become a Dominican friar. His highly influential family opposed this new life, expecting him to take on a higher-class career. To try to change his decision, they imprisoned him for a year. He refused to leave his new life as a friar, so he spent his time imprisoned memorizing scriptures and tutoring his sister. Once he was able to leave, the Dominican Order sent him to study in Cologne. As a student, he was considered slow and quiet. He was even called a “dumb ox”, but his professor Albertus disagreed, knowing Aquinas was very talented and destined for greatness. He studied and taught in cities all across Europe. He assisted 3 popes as their official theologian, wrote hymns sung in churches, and replied to thousands of objections from other scholars on theological topics. He is known for his deep appreciation for Aristotle, who he often referred to as simply ‘the philosopher’, and strives to prove how Aristotle’s reasoning could coexist with the Catholic Christian faith. At one point, Pope Clemen IV offered him the position of archbishop, but Aquinas politely declined, so dedicated to his theological work he couldn’t bear to leave it behind. He died in 1274 of a brain injury that had afflicted him as he was teaching. He is known as a key figure of scholastic tradition– uniting theology with philosophy.

Christianity’s Role in History According to Augustine – English 2 Lesson 125

Write 500 words on this topic: “What was Augustine’s view of Christianity’s role in history?”

Based on a selection of Augustine’s sermons, here is a summary of his view of Christianity’s role in history. At Augustine’s time, there were many critics of Christianity. He encourages Christians to show hospitality and meekness not only in the face of oppression, continuing to not provide evidence to support the critics. He does not say that Christians shouldn’t actively share their faith, but he emphasizes how submitting to persecutors will help do this. He uses the example of martyrs, whose testimonies of dying for their faith inspired others to become Christians. He points out that if the Christians fought their persecutors or denied their faith, their stories would not have caused other “wolves” (meaning persecutors) to become “sheep” (Christians). He tells Christians that powerful individuals can only kill your body, not your soul.

The Christians’ job is to be content with God regardless of good or bad times. When life is going well, people are even more vulnerable to sin. When there are tribulations, it can be harder to be content. Christianity’s ‘rival’ in history is people’s temptations. To resist these temptations, we must obey God’s laws.

Augustine’s 47th sermon is concerned with eschatology, which is defined as the theological study of what will happen at the end of the world. Everyone will die: Augustine reminds the listeners of this fact and points out that they should be concerned instead with what happens after they die. Your life is uncertain, but your death is certain and therefore the least of your worries. This is what should be relevant to people instead of historical tribulations, which are fleeting matters from Augustine’s standpoint. There is an unknown final day for the world, which is why we must be ethically prepared.
What an individual’s beliefs and actions are in history will affect what they get at the end. Augustine presents Christianity in his sermons as the solution. He writes in his 31st sermon that God “predestinates [believers] to the kingdom of heaven”.

Augustine says that there will be negative sanctions for non-believers. To prove his case he uses Troy as an example. Troy was Rome’s predecessor and had worshiped the same gods. The polytheistic kingdom of Troy was destroyed. Augustine states that just like Troy, Rome may be destroyed and fade out of power in history. He reminds the Romans that they still have a choice: if they begin praising and worshiping the true God, Rome will not perish. Christians should put their faith in God, not in rulers or any other people for that matter.

By His grace, God gives many non-believers the power to be His children– a chance for inheritance. Those who pursue sin and evil are not “sons of God” but “sons of man” (sermon 31).

Summarized in two words, Augustine’s view of a Christians’ role is “the pilgrim.” Like pilgrims in history, Christians pass through the world into heaven. This life is not the destination, only a test. Augustine believes that the world is declining, and does not say that it can be healed or saved. Instead of depressing, this is meant to inspire Christians to look forward to the future beyond this world. Christianity’s role in history is to provide an inheritance of the city of God.

Virtues in Venom – Biology Lesson 120 Essay

Answer any one of the following questions in an essay of approximately 150-250 words. Include relevant facts from the readings and videos of the past two weeks, and cite your sources. Question:

Can a poisonous arthropod provide benefits to human beings? Are there virtues in the venom? Give a few examples to support your point of view.

In my opinion, the venom of arthropods can provide benefits to humans, specifically in medicine. One example of a dangerous arthropod that has medical potential is the scorpion. There are over 17,000 species, but only 25 species have venom that can kill human beings. A scorpion’s venom is made of neurotoxins and enzyme inhibitors. Certain isolated enzyme inhibitors from scorpion venom can get rid of microbes. Because humans don’t have the particular enzyme, the isolated inhibitor is harmless to us. Arthropod venom can be developed into potential cancer treatment. For example, the deathstalker scorpion’s venom can bind with tumors and light it up, making it easier for doctors to identify the cancer’s location. This can help them not to remove too much or too little of the area, which would harm the patient.

A very important group of arthropods are spiders, whose venom works similarly to scorpions. In a study from 2018, scientists were able to use a component of the venom from Heriaeus melloteei spiders to treat paralysis. Another study showed that peptide derived from the dangerous Australian Funnel-web spider can effectively destroy cancer cells. Notably, the spider’s peptide did not kill healthy cells. Considering there are 45,000 recorded species of spiders, spider venom, like other arachnids’, has untapped medical potential.

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• Reference:
• http://bit.ly/38RB2Lz
• https://www.pnas.org/content/115/17/4495
• https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-10-06/peptide-from-spider-venom-killing-melanoma-cells/10344588

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The Albigensians, the Magna Carta, and Philip IV – Western Civilization Lesson 120 Essay – Week 24 Review

Writing Assignment: Answer three of the following questions: (1) What did the Albigensians believe? (2) Describe the mendicant orders of the thirteenth century. (3) What was the significance of the Magna Carta? (4) What was the significance of King Philip IV of France?

(1) What did the Albigensians believe?

The Albigensians were a group of Catholic heretics in the 12th century who lived mainly in Southern France. They believed in one good god and one evil god or devil who were always in conflict. In this sense, the Albigensian belief was similar to Manichaeism, but taken a step further: the Albigensians believed that the evil god created all physical matter, and the good god was only responsible for creating spiritual matter. Therefore, Albigensians believed that the world was inherently evil and that their bodies were prisons of the soul. This accounted for some incredibly strange beliefs, like considering pregnant women to be under the power of the evil god because they are carrying another human being into the world. This also meant that they did not believe that Christ could be good if he was really in a human body. They considered eating animal products impure. The Albigensians did not eat meat, eggs, or milk. They often practiced asceticism, a type of self-denial. The Albigensians were separated into two categories; the ‘Perfect’ and the ‘Believers’. The Perfect, as the name suggests, were considered perfect in following the strict lifestyle that the Albigensians glorified. The Believers were not held to all the strict rules of asceticism but did agree with Albigensian belief. The Catholic sacraments were rejected because of their dependence on the five senses, and replaced with a hypocritical alternative called the Consolamentum, where the Perfect put their hands on the Believer to wash away their sin and initiate them into the Perfect. This was usually done before death because if a Perfect Albigensian went back to a life of sin, they would be killed. This is a basic overview of their beliefs.

(3) What was the significance of the Magna Carta?

In England, John I was forced to issue the Magna Carta was in 1215. He was a king known for his conflicts with his barons and the church. This document is remembered as a limit for the king, bound by law and tradition. It was basically a reminder that the king was not above the law. For example, taxes beyond traditional amounts now needed consent from the kingdom’s important (but not royal) men. It was a great victory for the church and citizens, restating their liberties and restricting the crown’s power.

(4) What was the significance of King Philip IV of France?

Philip had a majestic and prestigious view of his role as king, similarly to Roman emperors. He favored renewing ancient Roman law and stood for the centralization of power. Like other kings of his time, though more effectively, he strove to gain power over the church, which had been a rival of the state because of its growth. While he was pious and respected the faith, he did want power. He was responsible for extreme inflation when he took money however he could, to pay for his numerous military campaigns. He debased coins and issued taxes. During his reign, as centralized power grew, the feudal system declined. The business class grows as more people move to the industry in towns and away from agriculture. Part of his legacy was his title, “Philip the Fair,” but it only referred to his appearance, not justice. He established the first representative assembly, meant to support the monarchy in times of crisis. It is not as significant as the Parliament of England, but still noteworthy. Overall, Philip’s main achievement was helping to centralize power in France, which was the predominant goal of monarchs of the time.

Western Civilization Lesson 115 Essay – Weekly Review

Writing assignment: Answer two of the following questions.

(1) What are some common misconceptions about the Crusades, and why are they incorrect?

(I don’t intend to justify all of the Crusaders’ actions, just to clarify some of the common assumptions about the Crusades.) The first misconception about the Crusades is that the Crusaders were completely unprovoked. This was not the case. The Muslims were taking Christian territories in Spain, the Middle East, North Africa, Asia Minor, and parts of the Byzantine Empire. This was about 2/3 of the Christian world. This had been going on for some time, (beginning in the 600’s and then on), so the Christians were indeed provoked by the Muslims’ raids of Italy and Spain and the aforementioned conquests.

Another common misconception is that the Crusaders went to war to gain wealth, which was not true. According to historical research, most of the Crusaders were already wealthy and had much land. This was because being a Crusader was surprisingly costly-many of them came home bankrupt. They had to sell their wealth to continue fighting. A related misconception was that the “second son” (and third, fourth) of the family went on crusade, while the rich oldest son stayed. This was not true and has been proven by historians that it was usually the “first son” of the family” who went on crusade. It is also commonly believed that the Crusaders forcibly converted the Muslims to Christianity. Muslims were not forced to give up their religion.

Another point is that there was no real “Children’s Crusade.” It was not an army, but a mass procession of youth and sick or disabled people led by a 16-year-old named Nicholas. It was not endorsed or supported by the Church. As they were traveling, Nicholas expected a sea to part for them as it did for Moses. It did not, so the procession separated.

The last misconception I will mention is that Crusades devastated the Muslims and immediately caused major resentment. From the view of the Muslims, the Crusades were insignificant because of the sheer power they had at the time. The first known scholarly mention of the Crusades was actually in 1899, centuries later.

(3) Based solely on the documents you read, describe the events of the Fourth Crusade.

The Fourth Crusade began in 1202, inspired by Pope Innocent III and encouraged by the death of the Muslim leader Saladin who had put an end to previous crusades. Unfortunately for the Crusaders, it turned out to be a disaster with detours in the (morally and literally) wrong direction. In preparation, the Crusaders bought horses, soldiers, and supplies from the Venetians– but were unable to pay for it all. The Venetians allowed them time to repay the debt, but first they were forced to sack the Christian city of Zara. Then they were persuaded to attack and pillage Constantinople by an alleged heir of the Byzantine throne, Alexis. He promised them money to repay the Venetians if they would help him become the ruler. This they did, and Constantinople was devastated and replaced by Venice as the “trade capital” of the West. This was the sad end of the Fourth Crusade– which ended up having nothing to do with reclaiming the Holy Land.

Western Civilization Lesson 110 Essay – Weekly Review

(1) What was the Great Schism? What factors brought it on?

The Great Schism was a gradual division between the Eastern (commonly referred to as Orthodox) and Western (also called Latin, or Catholic) churches of Europe. After many disputes and controversies, the Eastern church eventually severed ties with the West. Before the Great Schism, The Pope of Rome was acknowledged as having authority over all the other churches. The Eastern church, centered in Constantinople, attempted to claim its own power and authority. They argued that as the “New Rome” politically, they also had religious power. Rome did not accept this decree. The Roman church gave a counter-argument that political importance did not entitle Constantinople religious power. And after all, it was the Roman church that was founded by St. Peter; they argued. In the 800s, the West pope named Charlemagne ’emperor’ (a title traditional given by the Eastern Church) which angered the East, further alienating the two sides. These conflicts continued–the Westerners sacked Constantinople, the East retaliated, and so on. Then there was an incident of which the main outcome was the leader of the church of Constantinople, Photius, excommunicating the Roman Pope, Nicholas I. Then another dividing incident happened in 1054 when patriarch Micheal Cerularius shut down all Latin churches in Constantinople. In retaliation, Roman legates excommunicated him, but not any other individuals or churches. Still, the other Eastern patriarchs sided with Micheal. After these events, the Eastern and Western churches split, resulting in the Great Schism.

(2) How was Philip II Augustus significant in French history?

Under Philip II, France became the dominant power of all Europe. He was extremely effective in regaining central power. Before, the French monarchs were having problems exercising authority because of how much power the lords had from the feudal system. He succeeded in gaining power by obtaining land through conquests, dispossessing his vassals, and conquests- especially by destroying the Angevin empire in France.

(3) What are the sacraments?

A sacrament is defined as a sensible sign of grace. ‘Sensible’ refers to the five senses, not the modern definition of sensibility. The Catholic theology was that God’s grace, conveyed by these seven main sacraments, cleanse peoples’s souls. Baptism is the first, which washes away the ‘stain’ of original sin (in the garden of Eden), but the effect of the sin remained. This is why there are other Catholic sacraments as well. Baptism is symbolized by the sense of touch, as water is poured over the person’s head. Then there is penance, which starts with a confession to a priest. Holy Communion, usually done during Mass, is symbolized by taste and sight. This is done by eating the Eucharist (bread and wine), which signifies Christ’s body and blood. Confession is symbolized by hearing, as the person confesses their sins out loud for the priest to hear. Another sacrament is Extreme Unction, commonly referred to as ‘anointing the sick’. This is done before death or at the likelihood of death. The sacrament of Confirmation is bestowed to youth who are soon entering adulthood. Another is matrimony, in which a church official unites a couple in marriage. The sacrament of Holy Orders initiates a priest, bishop, or other church official.

Biology Lesson 110: Chordates

Answer ONE of the following: 3. What is a chordate? How are vertebrates different from chordates?

A chordate is a specific phylum, or ‘type’ of animal, classified by four distinct characteristics. These are possession of a notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal clefts, and a muscular tail.

These traits are not always visible, because sometimes they disappear while the animal is still a developing embryo. For example, a human would not have an actual ‘tail’ like a dog or cat would because during developed the ‘tail’ formed into the coccyx, also commonly referred to as the tail bone.

The dorsal nerve chord is a uniquely hollow nerve cord that develops into the brain and spinal chord. Non-chordate animals have a solid nerve chord– if they have one at all. It is supported by the notochord, a sturdy yet flexible rod that sits between the digestive tract and the aforementioned dorsal nerve chord. The notochord’s overall purpose is to support an animal’s body, but sometimes it is only present in the embryonic stage. It is made of fibrous cell tissues and fluid-filled cells. Pharyngeal clefts develop into ears or other structures on the sides of the neck and head on land chordates, and into gills or other filtering organs on aquatic chordates.

The difference between chordates and vertebrates is that vertebrates always have a head (they are crainiate chordates) and have a backbone made of vertebrae.

Bibliography: RPC Lessons and https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-notochord-definition-formation-function.html

Ethical Behavior of Zeus vs. Ethical Teaching of Jesus — English Lesson 105 Essay

Write a 500-word essay on this topic: “Compare the ethical behavior of Zeus with the ethical teaching of Jesus.”

Jesus Christ followed his ethical teaching perfectly, which made him the ideal example for his followers. Jesus taught that he is the servant of man, who was sent to Earth to forgive our sins and thereby give us a new way of life. As it says in John 3:15-17; “For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.”

On example of Zeus’s ethical behavior would be his conflict with Prometheus, a well-known myth described in both Works and Days and Theogony. When the god Prometheus gave the gift of fire to humans, Zeus cruelly punished him with torture by having an eagle eat his liver every day after it had regrown overnight. Then Zeus punished humans (though for no good reason, since they had done nothing wrong in this situation) by sending Pandora and her infamous box, which unleashed the forces of evil. This shows a lack of love and empathy for humanity and a lack of grace and forgiveness for his fellow gods. He occasionally aided heroes of myths, like when he helped Odysseus return home in The Odyssey, but this was rarely the case. Jesus Christ taught through his parables and sermons that love, compassion, grace, and forgiveness are cornerstones of righteous behavior. Jesus teaches to love our enemies, while Zeus is known for his brutal vengeance in Greek literature.

Zeus has the most power out of all the gods, but he does not use that power for good. He was feared by his worshipers, not loved. He is lustful, devious, and easily angered– which makes him seem very ‘human’ and unholy. In Works and Days, he is portrayed as just and wise, but also unpredictable and violent–a very contradictory depiction. Throughout Classical literature, Zeus assaults and rapes many humans and deities on his own whims. In the poem Metamorphoses, Zeus raped the goddess Io. To hide his crime from his wife, Hera, he turned Io into a cow. This is only one of many stories, unfortunately. This sets an absolutely appalling example of ethical behavior for the followers of Greek religion.

In contrast, Jesus had a lot to say about the importance of morality and ethics, which he showed through his actions as well. He tells his followers to follow all of God’s commandments, the most important one being “First, love God your Creator more than anything else. Then, love all other people the same as you love yourself.” (Matthew 22: 27-30). The other commandments include not to commit murder or adultery, not to steal and not to covet. This is quite unlike what Zeus is “teaching” through his behavior.

In conclusion, Jesus’s ethical behavior lines up exactly with his teaching. He taught that God sent him to be humanity’s redeemer and free people from the bondage of sin. Zeus, on the other hand, is a cruel and unpredictable god who does not have a clearly defined set of ethics.